Notes on Machiavelli
These notes document my ongoing study of Niccolò Machiavelli, whose ideas have profoundly influenced political thought for five centuries. Humans have always tried to understand themselves by observing others--and Machiavelli, to say the least, was a terrific observer.
Machiavelli, a classically educated Florentine served as the Second Chancellor of the Republic of Florence from 1494 to 1512, after the exile of the Medici family. During his service, Machiavelli undertook numerous diplomatic missions, spending time in courts of Louis XII of France, Pope Julius II, and Roman Emperor Maximilian I. A lot is known about his life and the origin of his works because of the letters he wrote to this friend Francesco Vettori after the Medici regained control and Machiavelli was left unemployed. During this time, he wrote multiple books conveying his diplomatic learnings--Florentine Histories, Discourses, On the Art of War, and The Prince. The Prince was written as an offering to Lorenzo de' Medici, hoping to regain favor with the ruling family.
The Prince examines what makes an effective ruler, with the preservation of state as its central concern. Machiavelli understood something that no one else did--acquiring power is easier than maintaining it. The Prince is his guide to remain in power and be the last man standing.
Though Lorenzo de' Medici never read The Prince, the rest of the world did. Machiavelli's ideas were so extremist and anti-church that his books were placed in the Index of Forbidden Books in 1559 and the name Machiavelli became synonymous with evil and amoral political manipulation.
"I can add colours to the chameleon,
Change shapes with Proteus for advantages,
And set the murderous Machiavel to school."
--Henry VI, part 3
Shakespeare, in his efforts to radically unveil the human soul, symbolized betrayal and the control of power as evil (Machiavel), from Gertrude's bed to the plots of Richard III.*
Yet, reading Machiavelli today, I find in him not a monster but a pragmatist. His rational view of the world makes me wonder that perhaps, Machiavelli was not so Machiavellian after all.
Machiavellian School of thought
Machiavelli, inspired by Aristotle, preached political realism--divorcing politics from ethics. The State was everything to him--not abstract morality, not religious virtue, but the raw mechanics of power. He was not concerned with republics, imaginary utopias, and the "science" of politics; instead, he displayed the brutal realities of statecraft. He scoffed at the child-like naiveties--perception of a good, generous, and fortune chasing prince.
To Machiavelli, humans were “ungrateful, fickle, false, cowardly, (and) covetous." He argued that man had the ability to be good, but he was only good when it was in his own self-interest to do so. For Machiavelli, there was no metaphysical realm to judge the wrong or right. No religion to protect us and no sacrament of reconciliation. Everything is here and now. You either oppress or get oppressed; "get them before they get you".
The Prince explains 1933-45 Germany, Stalin's Soviet Union, how nations are run, and why the "bad people" always get their way. In fact, Stalin's favorite book was The Prince. He kept it on his nightstand and frequently annotated it. Machiavelli's definition of good is far from taking your kids to the park. Good, for him means effective--someone who gets things done, no matter what.
The Case of Cesare Borgia
If there's anyone who influenced Machiavelli's political thought the most, it was Cesare Borgia--the illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI. He spent four months at Borgia's court, in the course of which he had many tête-à-tête conversations with the duke. Machiavelli was blown away by the sheer rigor of the duke, his governing style of extreme secrecy--a man who thought himself capable of attaining anything he wanted.
One of Machiavelli's favorite Borgia moments is his act in December of 1502 in Romagna. Borgia cleverly appointed his second in command, Rimirro de Orco to help him gain control of Romagna. He allowed him to do it by any means possible. Rimirro chose brutality. He publicly executed anyone who didn't support the duke and instilled fear among the crowd. When the people started protesting against these oppressive methods, Borgia ordered his guards to cut Rimirro in two pieces and display him at the public square for people to see. Machiavelli, who was present at the square, thought this was the most brilliant act of power he had ever witnessed.
Even though Borgia ultimately disappointed Machiavelli with his lack of foresight and inability to deal with his overconfidence, Machiavelli still considered him an exemplary ruler. Someone who came closest to attaining power effectively.
Love and Fear
The wise prince needs to be both loved and feared. Being loved by your people is great but being feared is even better. Hatred is the worst. If your people hate you, they're going to find a way to throw you out. The element of hatred needs to be removed quickly and powerfully (public displays of hatred removal do wonders).
Machiavelli loved fear. He advised that if you're to choose between having people love you or fear you, always choose fear. Love is fragile and temporary. Fear, on the other hand, is robust and effective. People respond strongly to fear and authority. Cesare Borgia was of course the perfect example for this. He made his people love him for slicing the second in command but also made it clear who was in charge.
Virtú vs Fortuna
Most rulers devote their entire existence to the massive endeavor of attainment of power. While some succeed, mere conquering of kingdoms doesn't make one a great/effective ruler. One must know how to maintain his rule. According to Machiavelli, power can be held by foresight. Preparation and planning for future events is what he describes as virtú. Fortune, on the other hand, can be catastrophic if not met with virtú. He describes fortune as a raging river--you must cross the river when it's empty. Machiavelli saw fortune as a woman, who can and must be beaten into submission. Fortune by his definitions is similar to luck. Luck is important but only if you create it.
The Lion and the Fox
A prince must know when to be a lion and when to be a fox. Lion is symbolic for great military prowess and displays of power. Fox is symbolic for traps and diplomacy. Neither quality alone is sufficient. A prince must know when to attack his prey and when to use cunning to get his way.
Epilogue
Machiavelli, during his diplomatic missions, was frustrated by the rulers he encountered. Louis XII didn't understand statecraft, Julius II was absolute nuts, and Maximillian was utterly hopeless. They all had something in common, a weakness that led them to their perils--their inability to change themselves in the face of changing circumstances.